The Birth of Israel

🌈 Abstract

The article discusses the origins and early history of the Israelites, examining various theories and evidence from archaeology, ancient texts, and biblical narratives. It explores the complex and diverse influences that shaped the emergence of the Israelite identity, including the role of the Shasu nomads, Canaanite groups, and the influence of other ancient Near Eastern cultures.

🙋 Q&A

[01] The Birth of Israel

1. What are the key problems and contradictions identified in the biblical narrative of the Israelites' origins?

• The strange lack of interaction between the biblical patriarchs Abraham and Jacob, despite their lives overlapping
• The silence of later prophets on the actions of the patriarchs, as if they didn't know they existed
• The detailed laws given to Moses for a temple that would not be built for another 400 years
• Direct contradictions between the Books of Joshua and Judges regarding the Israelite conquest of Canaan
• Archaeological evidence contradicting the biblical accounts, such as the abandoned state of Jericho and the non-existence of Ai at the time of their supposed conquest
• Anachronistic references to peoples like the Philistines and Arameans in the patriarchal stories

2. What are the four main theories that have been proposed for the origins of the Israelites?

1. Peaceful Infiltration Theory: The Israelites were mostly peaceful pastoralists who gradually crossed the Jordan River into the Canaan uplands.
2. Unified Conquest Theory: The biblical accounts of the Israelite conquest of Canaan are historically accurate.
3. Social Revolution Theory: The early Israelites were lowland Canaanites who rebelled against their masters and fled to the highlands.
4. Long Durée Theory: The Israelites were just another stage in the Canaanite cycle of urban development and nomadic pastoralism.

3. What is the author's proposed narrative for the origins of the Israelites?

• The core group of Israelites were likely Shasu nomadic pastoralists who gradually crossed the Jordan River and settled in the highlands.
• The Shasu may have been joined by small bands of displaced Habiru and assimilated some Canaanite groups over time.
• As the Shasu settled in the highlands, they forged a distinct identity in opposition to the sedentary Canaanites and Egyptians in the lowlands.
• The Israelites eventually expanded into the vacuum left by the decline of Canaanite and Egyptian power, subsuming some Canaanite groups peacefully and clashing with others.
• The Israelite identity likely incorporated diverse traditions and myths from various groups, including possible Mesopotamian and Egyptian influences.

[02] The Historical Context of the Ancient Near East

1. What was the general state of Canaan during the Bronze Age?

• Canaan saw cycles of urban development, abandonment, and re-development as populations shifted between cities and rural hinterlands.
• The Middle Bronze Age (2000-1550 BC) was a golden age for Canaan, with prosperous trade routes and cities like Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, and Gaza.
• Around 1725 BC, the Hyksos, a Semitic people, settled in southern Canaan and the Nile Delta, ruling over northern Egypt for a century before being driven out.
• The subsequent New Kingdom of Egypt absorbed Canaan into its empire, reducing the region to vassalage through brutal violence, leading to a decline in population.

2. Who were the Habiru and Shasu, and how did they relate to the emerging Israelites?

• The Habiru were a catch-all term for outcasts and exiles of various ethnic and social backgrounds.
• The Shasu were semi-nomadic pastoral groups that roamed territories from the Nile Delta to the Jordan River.
• Some scholars argue that the Shasu may have included Hyksos expelled from Egypt, and that the term "Land of the Shasu yhw" may refer to the earliest appearance of the Hebrew tetragrammaton, YHWH.
• It is possible that the Israelites emerged from a group of Shasu who gradually settled in the highlands of Canaan.

[03] The Theories on the Origins of the Israelites

1. What are the key points of the Peaceful Infiltration Theory?

• This theory posits that the Israelites were mostly peaceful pastoralists who gradually crossed the Jordan River and settled in the Canaan uplands.
• Archaeological evidence suggests the early Israelite settlements were characterized by pastoral features like large courtyards for livestock and minimalist pottery, indicating a nomadic background.

2. What are the main criticisms of the Unified Conquest Theory?

• Subsequent archaeological evidence has shown that many of the Canaanite cities named in the Book of Joshua as being conquered were either abandoned, had not been founded, or show no signs of conquest during the proposed time period.

3. Why were the Social Revolution and Long Durée Theories largely abandoned?

• The Social Revolution Theory, which argued the Israelites were lowland Canaanites who rebelled, was abandoned due to lack of evidence and the fact that the Israelite settlements were far from the Canaanite urban centers.
• The Long Durée Theory, which saw the Israelites as just another stage in the Canaanite cycle of urbanization and nomadism, was problematic because the Iron Age Israelite settlements showed a clear break in material culture from the Late Bronze Age Canaanites.

[04] The Proposed Narrative of the Israelites' Origins

1. What is the author's proposed core group of the early Israelites?

• The author suggests the core group of the Israelites were likely Shasu nomadic pastoralists who gradually crossed the Jordan River and settled in the highlands.

2. How did the Shasu develop a distinct Israelite identity?

• As the Shasu settled in the highlands, they forged their identity in opposition to the sedentary Canaanites and Egyptians in the lowlands, developing distinct practices like simple burials and undecorated pottery.
• The Israelites' identity was further solidified as they began to interact and clash with the new Philistine arrivals, leading to the adoption of practices like circumcision and the avoidance of pork.

3. How did the Israelite identity and population grow over time?

• The Israelites likely assimilated other groups, such as tribes of Canaanites like Asher and more Habiru-like displaced peoples, as the Canaanite centers declined.
• The author suggests the Exodus story and the figure of Moses may have been introduced by a small band of Shasu with a distant folk memory of leaving Egypt, which was then incorporated into the larger Israelite identity.
• The diverse traditions and myths of the various groups that coalesced into the Israelites were eventually woven together into a shared cultural identity.